` Introduction
This paper is going to discuss
the apocalypticism in New Testament. To explore this, paper will discuss the
different meanings of apocalipticism and the Jewish apocalypticism as
background of Christian apocalypticism. The paper will further explore the
apocalyptic motifs of New Testament writings and its theology.
1. Meaning of Apocalypticism
The term ‘apocalyptic’ is derived
from the Greek word a,pokalu,ptein which means “to reveal” or “to unveil”. This term has three main uses: literary genre
(apocalypse), a kind of eschatology (apocalyptic eschatology) and a historical
religio-social movement (apocalypticism).[1]
Firstly, Collins defines apocalypse as “a genre of revelatory literature with a
narrative framework, in which a revelation is mediated by an otherworldly being
to a human recipient, disclosing a transcendent reality which is both temporal,
insofar as it envisages eschatological salvation, and spatial insofar as it
involves another, supernatural world.”[2] This
definition is based on form and content. This definition covers a large number
of old Jewish, early Christian, Gnostic, Greek, Latin and Persian books which
deals the present condition in the light of future. Further, Collins
distinguishes two main types of apocalypse such as those with (Otherworldly
Journey) and without (Historical Apocalypses) otherworldly journey.[3]
Historical Apocalypses include Daniel, Book of Dreams and Apocalypse of Week in
1Enoch, Jubilees, 4Ezra and 2Baruch and Otherworldly Journey Apocalypses
include Book of the Watchers, Astronomical Book, Similitudes, 2 Enoch, 3
Baruch, Testament of Abraham, Apocalypse of Abraham, Apocalypse of Zephaniah
and Testament of Levi 2-5.[4] Secondly, apocalyptic eschatology deals with
the eschatology that reflects on apocalyptic literature. Apocalypticism as a
movement can be understood as a social spiritual movement of the minority group
in the society who wishes to express their hope in an alternative universe in
the context of persecution.[5]
2. Origin and Historical setting
of the Jewish Apocalypse
Though pseudonimity of
apocalypses makes difficulty to fix the origin and historical matrix of the
apocalypse, there are different views about the origin and setting of the apocalypticism.
Mownickel and Gunkel emphasized the Persian influence in raising
apocalypticism.[6] Later,
Otto Ploger argues that post exile society divided into theocratic party who
interpreted prophetical eschatology in terms of Jewish state and eschatological
party (identified as the proto-Hasidim group) who waited for eschatological
prediction of the prophets.[7] He
concludes that apocalypse originated within the proto-Hasidim group in the
matrix of inner conflict of Israelite society.[8] Rowley,
Hanson and so on think that apocalyptic tradition grew out from the Old
Testament prophetic tradition.[9] Having lead of Ploger, P. D. Hanson has argued that apocalypticism is a
development of Israelite prophecy which originated in the inner-community struggle
between visionary prophets and hierocratic[10]
(Zadokite) priests; which took place from the sixth through the fourth
centuries b.c.[11] Though Rowley
accepts apocalypticism as a child of Israelites prophecy, he also recognized
the Persian influence upon apocalypse.[12]
But G. von Rad who denies this view and argues that apocalypticism has features
of wisdom literature of the Old Testament such as dualism, radical
transcendence, esotericism and Gnosticism and he thus proposed that
apocalypticism arose from wisdom tradition.[13]
Though von Rad did not get several scholarly supports for his proposal, the
influence of the wisdom tradition on apocalypticism is recognizable. However,
the wide consensus is that Jewish apocalypses were written or revised during
times of social or political crisis. Horsley opines that Jewish apocalyptic
literature and movements was a product of Jewish crisis and persecution under
Greco-Roman imperialism and manifestation of Jewish resistance to imperialism
that encroached Jewish faith and society.[14]
Apocalyptic literature offer consolation
and exhortation in the face of persecution. Thus, the major consensus might be
that prophecy remains as a major influence on apocalypticism, though apocalypse
also may have influences from other elements such as Persian elements, wisdom
tradition of Israel and so on; which seemed to develop in the context of
socio-religio-political crisis of Jewish society.
3. Characteristics of the Jewish Apocalyptic
3.1Literary Character
a) Pseudonymity : The authors of the apocalypse used the names of famous venerable persons
in the ancient time as the author of
their books. Such usage might be to use such names as a device to increase the
authority of the book.
b) Visions and Symbolism: Apocalypses use symbolism which might have originated
from their own visions, dreams and the Old Testament.
c) Survey of history from a Perspective of the Past: The authors of the
apocalypses usually present the course of history in the form of prophecy
(usually allegorically) from a standpoint of one who was in the past.
d) Esoteric Character: Apocalyptic books claim that revelation or
divine secret made known to an individual through visions or dreams are
subsequently recorded for the encouragement of the righteous. The meaning of
the visions and dreams are often not clear and the information about the future
is kept away from the general knowledge. Apocalyptists believe that these books
were hidden books which were handed down in the long time of secret tradition.[15]
3.2 Theological Characteristics
a) Dualism: Apocalyptists
were dualists. Apocalyptists perceive two fundamental components to all realities:
the forces of good headed by God and forces of evil headed by Satan. God was associated
with good angels, light, righteousness and life while Satan was associated with
demons, darkness, sin and death. Human
beings are subjected by these cosmic powers.[16] Further,
apocalyptists applied the dualism to concept of history. Like Jewish thought,
apocalyptic thought also perceives that history is linear but apocalyptic
thought differs from Jewish thought in understanding that the age to come will
have a sharp break, not a simple continuation of the line of history or this
age as Jewish thought perceives.[17] Apocalyptists
have pessimism to the present age and their otherworldly hope directs to the
age to come.[18] The
present age is characterized with sin, death, war, violence and famine but God
will establish a new age - where there will be no characteristics of this age -
at the end of this age by destroying evil powers. Further, dualism is applied to their ethical thoughts also. Apocalyptists
divide human beings as wicked and wise (Daniel 12:10), the
righteous nation (Jub. 24:29), a righteous generation (Jub. 25:3)
and the Gentiles who are sinners (Jub. 23:24; 24:28).
b) The Eschatological Climax: Apocalyptic literature talks
about the end time tribulation and catastrophes which are known as messianic
woes. Further, God will intervene for the righteous at the end when the
suffering of the righteous would be at its height. God will redeem the
righteous especially Israel and vindicate the universe and the evil doers
especially the enemies of Israel. The final vindication will involve the day of
the judgement. God will judge everyone including the dead ones and God will
give eternal reward to those who were with God and eternal punishment to those
who were not on God’s side. The eschatological hope is also reflected in their
faith in the resurrection of dead.[19]
c) Imminence: Apocalyptists
believe that vindication of God was going to happen soon. They were living in
crisis and suffering which led them to have a wish of imminent end of this
present evil world. Thus, in their thought, end of the world was imminent.[20]
d) Supernatural and Cosmic Dimension: Though the apocalyptic has strong Jewish
colour, the scope of the apocalyptic vision is cosmic. Angels, divine beings,
human beings, Satan and anti-God forces are active in cosmos.[21] Jewish
apocalyptists talk about the transformation of cosmos. God will create a new
creation with Edenic conditions.
e) Divine Control and Sovereignty: God is in control of history which is moving towards
its goal. The history is already planned and written in advance. This age will
be ended with the supernatural intervention of God and thereby a new age will
be inaugurated.[22]
f) Messiah and Messianic
Kingdom: Messiah appears in apocalyptic literature as
an eschatological figure who will take a leading role in the coming kingdom. Apocalyptic
literatures talk about two messiahs-messiahs from David and from Levi.[23]
Moreover, apocalyptic has two views about the Messianic Kingdom: some understood Messianic kingdom as arrival of an eternal kingdom and
others understood it as a temporary Messianic kingdom which would be succeeded
by an eternal kingdom. The conception of a temporary Messianic kingdom would
function as a transition between the present evil age and the age to come,
monarchy and theocracy and Messiah to the eternal reign of God.
4. Apocalyptic Motifs in New Testament
The significances of the
apocalypticism for New Testament studies were first brought out by A.
Schwietzer and J Weiss. Following such lead Kasemann claims that ‘apocalyptic
is the mother of all Christian theology.’ Further, Dunn points out that Christianity
in its beginning was eschatological enthusiastic movement largely marked with
apocalyptic traits.[24] The
rest of this paper would discuss the apocalyptic motif in New Testament and its
theology.
4.1 Jesus
Dunn points out following points about
characteristics of the message of Jesus in connection with apocalypticism.[25]
1. Jesus used the apocalyptic
language of two ages (Mk.3.29/Matt12.32; Mk.10.30 / Lk.18.30;
Mk.11.14/Matt.21.19) 2. The pessimism-hope dualism as in apocalypticism is
absent in Jesus’ thought because Jesus perceived that eschatological hope was already
present in his ministry. 3.Like apocalyptists, Jesus also anticipated
eschatological trail (Mt.5.11f/Lk.6.22f; Mt.6.13/ Lk11.4; Mk.10.39; Mt.10.23,24),unnatural
enmity (Mt.10.34-36/Lk12.51-53; Mk13/Mt10.21) and cosmic catastrophe (Mk13.24f)
before the End. He also talks about final judgement and repentance. 4. Jesus’
thought about the end seemed to be imminent (Mk.1.15; Mt.10.7/Lk10.9,11). 5.
Though the supernatural and cosmic dimension of the end events are not clearly
portrayed in the thought of Jesus, the gospel gave several accounts of the defeat
of Satan by Jesus. 6. Unlike the Jewish apocalyptists, Jesus did not put
forward any eschatological calendar. But he keeps a factor of unknowability
about the end time. 7. Unlike the contemporary apocalypticism, Jesus proclaimed
the realized eschatology.
Dunn concludes that “Jesus not
only proclaimed God’s eschatological power as already active but proclaimed
also the final consummation of God’s purpose for the world as imminent and did
so in the language of apocalyptic. To that extent the message of Jesus is a part
of the trajectory of apocalyptic.”[26]
4.2 Q Community.
Q mainly contains apocalyptic
and wisdom materials. Q apocalyptic material took shape when the community
underwent severe stressful cultural condition and increasing opposition from
the outsiders.[27] Q
condemns the present generation as ‘brood of vipers’ (Q 3.7), ‘evil generation’
(Q7.31-34; 11.29). Several sayings threaten with apocalyptic judgement to those
who would not receive the message of John the Baptist, Jesus and disciples of
Jesus (Q 6.47-49; 12.8). According to Q, the judgement will be very soon and
the representative of God (Jesus) will be the judge and he will appear suddenly
without warning. John the Baptist used apocalyptic imagery of judgement-fire
(Matt. 3.10-12). He might have picked up this imagery from apocalyptic
portrayal of judgement as river of fire (Daniel 1.10; I Enoch 14.19;17.5;67.7;
IV Ezra7.36ff and so on) . The metaphor of the harvest is common in both
prophetic and apocalyptic literature.[28]
(Confer Joel 3.13; IV Ezra 4.30). Matt.3.10 says that the axe is already at the
root of the trees. All these metaphors might be influenced by the apocalyptic
concept of the messianic woes. Moreover, another possible apocalyptic influence
may be traced out in his message which included hope for those who repent and
judgement for those who do not repent.
Tukckett says the beatitudes
of Q are eschatologically oriented.[29] Though
Q is aware about the delay of parousia, Q emphasises the imminent return of
Jesus since the signs are already evident.[30]
The parable of the thief and unfaithful servants (Q 12.39-46;42-46) implies the
imminent return of Jesus and the unpredictability of parousia. Further, Q
projects imminent appearance of Son of Man as a judge. Parousia of the Son of
Man will be visible, sudden, unanticipated and will bring disaster to those who
are not prepared for Parousia.[31]
4.3 Mark 13
The wide scholarly consensus
is that Mark 13 is a conflation of apocalyptic materials, Jesus’ sayings and
editorial additions.[32] Though
it is known as little apocalypse, several features of Jewish
apocalyptic features are absent in Mark 13. This chapter opens in the context
of conversation about the temple in Jerusalem. Theissen notices that Mark 13 contains prophesies
of end time in three phases.[33]
a) As part of beginning of a
new world, there will be cosmic catastrophe (vv.5-8) and persecution of the
disciples (vv.9-13). Jesus warns disciples about deception (v.5) through false
messiahs (v.6). War, rumours about war, earthquakes, uprisings and famines are
part of the divine plan before the coming of the new kingdom (vv.7,8). The focus
shifts to the suffering and persecution of disciples from v.9 onwards. The
phrase “they will deliver you up to councils; and you will be beaten in
synagogues; and you will stand before governors and kings for my sake” in v.9
indicates that the disciples will be persecuted by Jews, non-Jews and religious
and political authorities. However the suffering of the believers will make an opportunity
to witness Jesus to secular authorities. Moreover, the suffering of the
disciples extends to jeopardize life and faith of disciple, breakup of their
families and antagonism towards disciples by close relatives and others (vv.
12-13). Such division among humans is an indication of the end time in Jewish
apocalyptic writings.[34] Despite
persecution, Jesus assured the presence of Holy Spirit with them in the midst
of persecution (v.11). b) The second phase of the end
time is tribulation. It is described that the ‘abomination of desolation’ will
manifest (v.14). This expression might be taken from Daniel 9.27; 11.31; 12.11
where it refers to the pagan altar erected by Antiochus IV Epiphanes in
Jerusalem temple.[35] The
phrase indicates that something blasphemous will stand at the place where it
does not belong and which will create great distress.[36]
Moreover, Mark 13.14-23 talks about the distress that will come upon Jerusalem
and Jews.[37] And vv.
15-18 talk about the instant flight of Jews when the abomination of desolation
appears. The tribulation will come suddenly and there will not be any time to
conserve something from his or her home. The traditional expression which
implies tribulation of both Jews and others in Daniel 12.1 can be found in the
language of v.19. The terms ‘distress/tribulation’ (vv.19,24) along with ‘those
days’ (vv.17,19) is a technical usage in Jewish literature to imply the woes in
the end time.[38] The
phrase ‘Lord had not cut short those days’ in v.20 has analogies within the
Jewish apocalyptic literature. The concern here is that God will show forth his
mercy in such tribulation without which no one can survive including the elects
of God. Further, vv.21-22 explain about the appearance of false Christ and prophets
at the end of the time which indicate that the end is at hand and also climax
of the tribulation.[39]
And v.23 exhorts for that ‘so be on your guard’ which indicates that believers should
be obedient and watchful though Jesus foretold many signs of the end time.
c) Appearance of the Son of
Man in glory to rescue the elect (v.24ff) is the final phase of the end time
according to the prophecies in Mark 13. Mark blended Old Testament language of
cosmic signs, day of the Lord and Son of Man in vv.24-27. Further, this section
gives the picture of cosmic collapse which is characterised with elements that
can be found in Jewish apocalyptic writings such as darkening of the sun and
moon, the fall of the stars from heaven and the surrendering of the heavenly
bodies.[40]
Moreover, following the tribulation, Jesus will appear as the Son of God in
glory. Jesus will appear in ‘clouds.’ In Old Testament, cloud indicates God’s
presence and glory. Though cosmic collapse will happen, God will gather elects
of God when Jesus will return in glory and power.
The chapter closes with
exhortation of Jesus to disciples. The parable of fig tree (vv.28-31) indicates
the nearness of the end. The natural process of fig tree in the summer and
winter is compared to the sequence of events leading up to the appearance of
the Son of Man.[41] The
angels, Jesus and human beings do not know the time of the end (vv.32-37).
Thus, everyone should be watchful and vigilant.
4.4 Pauline Writings
Rowland notices that Paul had apocalyptic way of thinking.[42] Further De Boer notices
that Paul applied apocalyptic language not only to the parousia of Jesus but
also to the gospel that he proclaimed.[43] “The whole of God’s saving
activity in Jesus Christ, from beginning to end, is apocalyptic.”[44] Further, Beker claims that
Jewish apocalyptic motifs dominate Pauline thought and the coherence of the
gospel consists of the apocalyptic interpretation of the Death and resurrection
of Jesus.[45]
He points out the following apocalyptic motifs in Paul:
a) The faithfulness and vindication of God: Paul believes that God of
Israel who fulfilled self vindication and faithfulness towards God’s promises
in Jesus Christ will fulfill the same to the whole creation. Further, Paul
joins his gospel with theocentric worldviews and consequently the promises in
Old Testament that do not fulfill in the gospel of Christ will give a new hope
for their fulfillment in the kingdom of God.[46]
b) Universalism: Paul relates universalism and vindication of God:
“universal and comprehensive reign of God signifies the depth and breadth of
God’s self vindication which will only come about when the whole world is
vindicated.”[47] Paul denies elitism towards Israel in Old
Testament, and extends salvation and vindication to all.[48]
c) Dualism: The dualistic motifs
applied by Paul to the age to come and present age and resurrection and death
of Jesus as a mark of the incursion of future age into the old age. Paul also
used dualism to mark the forces of future that already works in the present
world. The apocalyptic dualism
emphasizes God’s call to the church to fight against the present godless world.
This battle expresses in several ways: battle of spirit with flesh (Gal.5.17),
faith in Christ against the law (Gal. 215-21), foolishness of the cross and
wisdom of this world (I Cor.1.18-25) and battle between powers of life and
powers of death (Rom. 5.38-39).[49]
d) Imminence: Paul emphazises the imminent end of the time and return of
Jesus. The theme of imminence is related to necessity,
unpredictability, and dialectic
patience and impatience. The significance Paul has given to resurrection of
Jesus made a necessity of imminent return of Christ. Christ’s resurrection, the
first fruit (I Cor. 15.23), has connection to the final resurrection of the
dead. Holy Spirit, the agent of the future glory of God is present in this age
indicates imminent return of Jesus. Unlike apocalyptic writings, Paul does not
give any timetable for end time event but he emphasizes the unpredictability of
the end. Further, the dialectic of patience and impatience in Paul’s life such
as combination of ‘his passionate hope with his insistence on sobriety (II
Cor.5.13) and his daily pragmatic-pastoral care’ implies Paul’s passion of sobriety
and his impatience controlled by his patience for preparing the world for its
future glory. [50]
Though the paper has attempted to summarize the apocalyptic thought of
Paul that Beker discusses in his book The Triumph of God The Essence of Paul’s
Thought, it may be
essential to notice the important texts which have apocalyptic motifs: I Thess
4.13-5.11;II Thess. 1.5-2.12; Romans 8:19,23 and I Cor. 15.[51]
4.5 The Book of Revelation
The book of Revelation falls within the category of apocalyptic
literature. Like other apocalyptic writings this book was born out of severe
crisis and persecution faced by Christians. Further, the consensus is that the
confrontation between Christianity and Roman Empire and imperial cult might be
the background of this book. The book of Revelation contains several
apocalyptic numbers and imageries, heavenly beings, visions and heavenly
journeys. Further, apocalyptic theological motifs in Revelation are: dualism,
messianic woes, imminent end and confidence in God’s sovereign control.[52] Revelation talks about the
appearance of the risen Christ to John in Chapter 1, seven letters to the churches
(2-3), Vision of the Heavenly Throne Room (Rev 4–5), judgment which portrayed under the symbolism of the opening of
seven seals of the document in God’s hands (Rev 6:1–8:5), the sounding of the
seven trumpets (Rev 8:6–11:19) and the outpouring of seven bowls of wrath (Rev
15–16), coming of Christ and city of God and destruction of anti-God forces.[53]
5. Theology
of Apocalyptic Motifs in New Testament
Following are the theological aspect of the New Testament apocalyptic
motifs:
a) Imminence of the
end: The imminent end of the
time is indicated by a variety of images such as the thief who comes in the
night (Mt 24:43; Lk 12:39; 1 Thess 5:2, 4; 2 Pet 3:10; Rev 3:3; 16:15), the
master who returns after a long journey (Mk 13:34–36; Lk 12:35–38, 42–48) and
the bridegroom who arrives in the middle of the night (Mt 25:1–13). The same
motif is also found in Revelation: “what must soon take place” (Rev 1:1) and,
“Surely I am coming soon” (Rev 22:20).[54]
b) Cataclysmic end: Apocalyptic understanding of new Testament
predicts catastrophes such as famine, natural disasters, war, earthquakes,
betrayal, plagues and signs in the heavens (e.g., Joel 2; Mk 13; Rev) and
severe tribulation to disciples of Jesus, Jews and others(Dan 12:1; Mk 13:24;
Rev 7:14) before the final judgment and return of Jesus.
c) Battle between the Forces of Good and Evil: There will be severe battle
between the forces of good such as God, God’s angels and people and
forces of anti-God forces such as demons and followers of Satan. War imagery
motifs especially in Revelation clearly predicts ultimate victory for God and
people of God and complete defeat of evil (Rev 12:7;13:1–1;19:19;20:9;16:1–11;14:19–20;20:10;18:9–10;IIThess 2).
d) Return of Jesus: New Testament
places the parousia of Jesus in the centre of its apocalyptic understanding.
The resurrection of Jesus is understood apocalyptically as inauguration of the
new age. Holy Spirit is present in this present age as guarantee of future
redemption. Thus already-not yet tension is one of the features New Testament
apocalyptic. This eschatological tension encourages believers to have endurance
and hardship in this present age along with preparedness and watchfulness for
the parousia of Christ by keeping the ethics.
e) Resurrection and Judgment: New
Testament predicts the resurrection of the dead. I Cor 15 talks about the
bodily resurrection of those who died in Christ. Revelation 20 also talks about
resurrection. God will give the eternal rewards and punishments to all human
according to their works in this earth when they lived here (I Cor. 5.10, Rev
20.11-15).
d) Transformation of the cosmos. Apocalyptic understanding of the New
Testament predicts a complete transformation of the cosmos which is
interconnected to the redemption of the sons of God and parousia of Jesus (Romans 8:19,23). Moreover, the understanding of new
heaven and earth implies that God will recreate the entire cosmos (2 Pet
3:13; Rev 21:4; cf. Is 33:24; 65:20).
Evaluation
and Conclusion
a)
Apocalypticism can be understood as a literary genre, a socio-religious
movement and kind of eschatology which might have grown out of the heavy
influence of Old Testament prophetical tradition and also the one may not deny
the influence of Persian and Old Testament wisdom tradition; under the context
of soico-religio-political crisis of Israelites. b) As scholars such as Schwietzer, J Weiss, Kasemann
and Dunn acknowledged; it is important to consider Jewish apocalypticism as a
background to understand Christian apocalyptic understanding which might be
influenced by Jewish apocalypticism at large. Though it may be difficult to
find apocalyptic genre in its strict sense in New Testament, no one may deny
the large presence of apocalyptic motifs in New Testament writings. It may be
concluded that early Christian communities were heavily influenced by Christian
apocalyptic understandings. c)There are striking similarities between Christian
apocalyptic theology and Jewish apocalyptic theology, but the former one is
different from the later one through its Christ centeredness and its affinity
with other Christian theological motifs such as ecclesiology, realized
eschatology etc.
Bibliography
Allison, D. C. “Apocalyptic.”
Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels. Edited by Joel G. Green, Scot McKnight and I.
Howard Marshall. Illinois: Intervarsity Press
1998.
“Apocalyptic Vision of the Future.” Dictionary of Biblical Imagery.
Edited by Leland Ryken, James C.Wilhoit
and Tremper Longman III. Illinois: Inter
Varsity Press,1998.
Aune, D. E., T. J. Geddert and C.
A. Evans. “Apocalypticism.”
Dictionary of New Testament
Background. Edited by Craig A. Evans
and Stanley E. Porter. Illinois:
Inter Varsity
Press,1993.
Aune,
D. E.“Apocalypticism.” Dictionary of Paul and His Letters. Edited
by Gerald F Hawthorne, Ralph P Martin, and Daniel G. Reid. Illinois: Inter
Varsity Press,1993.
Beasley-Murray, G. R. “Book of Revelation.” Dictionary of the Later New
Testament & Its Developments. Edited by Ralph P. Martin and Peter H.
Davids . Illinois: Inter Varsity Press,1998.
_____________. Jesus and the Last Days the Interpretation
of the Olivet Discourse. Massachusetts: Hendrickson, 1993.
Beker, J. Christiaan. The Triumph
of God The Essence of Paul’s Thought. Translated by Loren T. Stuckenbruck.
Minneapolis: Fortress Press,1990.
Boer, Martinus C. De. “Paul, Theologian of
God’s Apocalypse.” Interpretation 56/1(January,
2002):21-33.
Collins, J.J. “Morphology of a Genre.” Semeia 14 (1979):1-20
Collins, J.J. Daniel with an Introduction to Apocalyptic
Literature. Grand Rapids: William B.
Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1984.
Cook, Stephen L. Prophecy and Apocalypticism The Postexilic Setting. Minneapolis:
Fortress
Press,1995.
Duling, Dennis C. “Millennialism.” In The Social Sciences and New Testament
Interpretation.
Edited by Richard Rohrbaugh . Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers,1996.
Dunn, James D G. Unity and Diversity in the New Testament. London: SCM Press,1977.
Edwards, James R. The Gospel According to Mark. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans
Publishing Company, 2002
Ehrman, Bart D. The New Testament
A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings. Oxford: Oxford University
Press,1997.
Hanson,Paul D. The
Dawn of Apocalyptic. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979
Harrington, Daniel J “The Gospel According
to Mark.” In The New Jerome Biblical
Commentary,
edited by R.E Brown, J. A Fitzmyer and R. E Murphy. Bangalore:
Theological Publication
in India, 2005.
Kloppenborg, John S. The Formation of Q. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987.
Russel, D.S. The Method and Message of Jewish Apocalyptic 200BC-AD100. London: SCM
Press,1964.
Richard
A. “The Kingdom of God and the Renewal of Israel: Synoptic Gospels, Jesus
Movement and Apocalypticism.” Encyclopedia
of Apocalypticism. Edited by John J Collins. Vol.1. New York/London:
Continuum, 2000.
Rowley, H. H. The
Relevance of Apocalyptic.New York: Association Press, 1944.
Rowland, Christopher. The Open
Heaven A Study of Apocalyptic in Judaism and Early Christianity. Horsley, London:SPCK,1982.
Sobanaraj, S. Diversity in Paul’s Eschatology. Delhi: ISPCK, 2007.
Tuckett, Christopher M. Q and the History of Early Christianity.
Edinburgh: T & T Clark1996.
Theissen, Gerd. The New Testament: History, Literature, Religion. New York:T &
T Clark,2003.
.
[1] S. Sobanaraj, Diversity in
Paul’s Eschatology (Delhi
[2] J. J Collins, “Morphology of a Genre,” Semeia 14 (1979):9; D. C. Allison, “Apocalyptic,” Dictionary of
Jesus and the Gospels, edited by Joel G. Green, Scot
McKnight and I. Howard Marshall (Illinois: Intervarsity Press 1998),17.
[3] Collins, Semeia ….,13.
[4] J.J Collins, Daniel with an Introduction to Apocalyptic
Literature (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1984),6,14.
[5] Sobanaraj, op. cit.,17.
[6] Stephen L. Cook, Prophecy and
Apocalypticism The Postexilic Setting (Minneapolis: Fortress Press,1995),4.
[7] D. E Aune,
“Apocalypticism,” Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, edited by
Gerald F Hawthorne, Ralph P Martin, and Daniel G. Reid (Illinois: Inter Varsity
Press,1993),26.
[8] Cook, op. cit.,7.
[9] Paul D. Hanson, The Dawn of Apocalyptic (Philadelphia:
Fortress Press, 1979), 29; H. H Rowley, The
Relevance of Apocalyptic (New York: Association Press, 1944), 15.
[10] The term hierocratic
denotes the priestly government.
[11] Hanson, op. cit.,29.
[12] Rowley, op. cit.,43.
[13]Christopher Rowland, The Open
Heaven A Study of Apocalyptic in Judaism and Early Christianity
(London:SPCK,1982),204.
[14] Richard A Horsley, “The Kingdom of God and the Renewal of Israel:
Synoptic Gospels, Jesus Movement and Apocalypticism,” Encyclopedia of Apocalypticism, edited by John J Collins, vol.1
(New York/London: Continuum, 2000):303-344.
[15] D.S. Russel, The Method and
Message of Jewish Apocalyptic 200BC-AD100
(London: SCM Press,1964),109.
[16] Bart D. Ehrman, The New
Testament A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings
(Oxford: Oxford University Press,1997),216.
[17] James D G Dunn, Unity and
Diversity in the New Testament (London: SCM Press,1977),312.
[18] Aune, D. E., T. J. Geddert and C.
A. Evans, “Apocalypticism,”
Dictionary of New Testament Background, edited by Craig A. Evans
and Stanley E. Porter (Illinois:
Inter Varsity Press,1993).
[19] Dunn, op,cit.,313; Ehrman, op,cit.,216-217.
[20] Dunn, op,cit.,314; Ehrman, op,cit.,217.
[21] Dunn, op.cit.,314-315.
[22] Ibid.,315.
[23] Russel, op.cit.,317.
[24] Dunn, op.cit.,309.
[25] Ibid.,318-322.
[26] Ibid.,322.
[27] Dennis C. Duling, “Millennialism,” in The Social Sciences and New
Testament Interpretation, edited by Richard Rohrbaugh (Massachusetts:
Hendrickson Publishers,1996),197.
[28] Dunn, op.cit.,317.
[29] Christopher M. Tuckett, Q and
the History of Early Christianity (Edinburgh: T & T Clark1996),158,155.
[30] Tuckett, op.cit.,158,155.
[31] John S. Kloppenborg, The
Formation of Q (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987), 164.
[32] Dunn, op.cit.,328
[33] Gerd Theissen, The New
Testament: History, Literature, Religion (NewYork:T & T Clark,2003),43.
[34] Daniel J Harrington, “The Gospel According to Mark,” in The New Jerome Biblical Commentary,
edited by R.E Brown, J. A Fitzmyer and R. E Murphy (Bangalore: Theological
Publication in India, 2005),624.
[35]Ibid., 622.
[36] Theissen, op.cit.,43; George R Beasley-Murray, Jesus and the Last Days the Interpretation of the Olivet Discourse
(Massachusetts: Hendrickson, 1993), 416.
[37]Ibid., 407.
[38] James R. Edwards, The Gospel
According to Mark (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2002),400.
[39]Ibid.,401; Harrington,op.cit.,624.
[40] Edwards, op.cit., 402.
[41]Harrington,op.cit.,624.
[42] Rowland,op.cit.,386.
[43] Martinus C. De Boer, “Paul, Theologian of God’s Apocalypse,” Interpretation 56/1(January, 2002): 21.
[44] Ibid.
[45] J. Christiaan Beker, The
Triumph of God The Essence of Paul’s Thought, translated by Loren T.
Stuckenbruck (Minneapolis: Fortress Press,1990),19-20.
[46] Ibid.,21-24.
[47] Ibid.,27.
[48] Ibid.,26.
[49] Ibid.,27-31.
[50] Ibid.,31-36.
[51] Discussion about I Thessa 4.13-5.11, Romans 8:19,23
and I Cor. 15 can be found in my
earlier presentation on Eschatology of Paul.
[52] Dunn, 333.
[53] G. R. Beasley-Murray, “Book of Revelation,” Dictionary of the Later New
Testament & Its Developments,edited by Ralph P. Martin and Peter H.
Davids (Illinois: Inter Varsity Press,1998),1029-1031.
[54] “Apocalyptic Vision of the Future,” Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, edited by Leland Ryken, James C.Wilhoit and Tremper Longman III (Illinois: Inter Varsity
Press,1998),38.
Comments
Post a Comment
Thank you for commenting.