New Testament Background: History, Culture, and Religion of the Hellenistic Age

Philosophy and Religion

1. Philosophical schools and Philosophic Religion

(a) The Academy and Platonism

Xenocrates and Speusippus, Plato’s students, created Platonic system which popularized Demonology that contributed philosophical legitimacy for beliefs related with demons and thus laid the foundation for their later propagation in philosophical and theological literature. Middle Academy of III and II BCE had dispute with Stoic and other philosophical schools, in that process the Academy fell into skepticism. Antiochus of Ascalon broke this skepticism and gave up the opposition to Stoic. Further, Platonism wide spread in I BCE as a cultural development and development of dualistic anthropology and cosmology associated with this. Plato proposed two world souls: good and evil souls. The Stoic philosopher Posidonius took this dualistic idea and he differentiates two worlds in his cosmology: the celestial world and the sublunar world. Moreover, he developed trichotomic anthropology: spirit, body and soul. This Platonizing Stoicism became foundation for philosophical and religious development at the close of Hellenistic period that demonstrated in Philo whose allegorical interpretation and concept of God are Stoic; anthropology and cosmology are Platonic; and the concept of Logos has Platonic and Stoic features.

(b) The Peripatetic Philosophy

Aristotle’s teaching was not influential for a long time until Andronicus of Rhodes (middle of I BCE), head of the Peripatetic school, who was responsible for the new edition of Aristotle’s writings, which established Aristotle’s importance in the imperial period. Peripatetic school interested in natural science, character studies and bibliographies.

(c) Epicurus and the Epicureans

Epicurus (341-270BCE) established his school in Athens. This school proposes that God does not involve in human lives and therefore it is meaningless to depend on God and natural events are determined by laws related with movement of atoms. They promote independence and imperturbability of a wise man.

Epicureans were organized like religious association or mystery club to provide happiness and friendship to individuals. They had friendship, community, mutual pastoral care as religious duties and community meals and memorial festivals as liturgical celebration. The religious goal of true happiness limited to the earthly life. Further, they considered death as dissolution of the soul into atoms.

(d) The Stoa

The Stoa was found by Zeno of Citium on Cyprus. From its inception, Stoic philosophy was cosmopolitan and pantheistic. Believing as heir of Socrates, they explain preeminence of their ethical teaching: virtue is only good that exist. Their ethics disassociated with empirical and external motivations. The goal of moral action is “to live in agreement (with Logos)” according to Zeno or “to love in agreement with nature” (Chrysippus). “Nature” means “nature” of human being, that is, Logos which is rational discernment. This view led into development of their cosmology and psychology. Astrology and natural science were the source of their cosmology. A strict materialistic and deterministic view of the world was the result of it. And Stoic psychology is a doctrine of affections.

Stoics and Epicureans were contributed the ideals of a wise man in Hellenistic time. Further, Stoicism was the main contributor for the renewal of religious ideas in Hellenistic time and thus found the base for the Hellenistic theology. It is because of their materialistic doctrine of all-governing Logos, rationale principle, which ruled all things. Therefore Stoics reinterpreted old myths and rituals to relate religion and philosophy by using allegorical methods. Hellenistic-Jewish interpreters and Christians used this hermeneutical method later. Moreover, Panaetius of Rhodes (ca. 180-110BCE), emphasized ethical teachings directed to the conduct of life  and his work On Right Conduct was used in  Cicero’s De officiis.  Further development of Stoicism came from Posidonius of Apamea, who amalgamated different philosophical streams. His cosmology appears in cosmic anthropology of Gnosticism. Stoic of the imperial time referred Chrysippus instead Posidonius.

2. The Spirit of the Hellenistic Age

(a)   The Cynics

 

            The founder of Cynic philosophy was Diogenes of Sinope (400/390-328/323 BCE). He propagated no particular philosophy but later Cynics influenced by Stoic philosophy. They propagated their teachings through striking example of the behaviors. They developed diatribe for teaching and preaching.  The diatribe scorned technical language and used the vernacular language of common man, even to the point of rudeness for its images and examples. The diatribe found by Dion of Borystenes who was influenced by Aristotelian and Platonic philosophy. This style influenced the writing of Paul, Philo, Seneca, Musonius, Epictetus, Maximus and Lucian.

(b)   Euhemerism

         

            There were many popular theories about the origins of belief in gods in antiquity. Euhemerism established by Euhemerism of Messene (340-260BCE). He interpreted critically the myths and reduced gods into mere heroes and they worshipped like heroes or divine rulers.

(c)   Astrology and Fate

          Plato stated that stars are divine beings. In VI BCE, Babylonian belief in stars and astronomy popularized among Greeks. Alexandria became the centre of astronomy and new discoveries. Moreover, astronomy became the framework for new philosophico-religious view of the world where the old local and city gods got new universal outfit. This world view promoted extensively heimarmene (sometime also called ananke and Aristotle defined ananke as that which is contrary to the movement of free choice ) who is the highest god, the final power over everything including fate written in the stars and which predetermined human life. Astrology, particularly faith in fate became popular in Hellenistic period and belief in astrology and   Heimarmene reached its climax in Roman period.

(d)   Orphism concept of the afterlife

         The time of the origin of Orphism and the Thracian singer Orpheus is uncertain, though his followers dated the time before Homer. Orphism first appeared in the context of the production of mythical writing in Greece. Greek authors produced many thegonies in poetic language during 600-500BCE. Several theogonies of IV BCE were the Orphic work. Their theology tends towards monotheism while holding polytheistic ideas. They had faith in life, bliss and punishment after death. Orphic believed that punishment of soul in the depth of the earth and the field of bliss will be in the far west. The punishment of soul in the depth of the earth became widespread in Hellenistic world and appeared in pagan religions, Jews (I Enoch) and Christians (the Acts of Thomas and Apocalypse of Peter).

3. The Development of Greek Religion

(a) Syncretism

        Syncretism implies mixing of Greek and oriental religions. Following are the elements behind such syncretism: firstly, Greek and oriental religions were actually local cults of people, state or city. This view changed because of philosophical influence, intellectual enlightenment and mobility of the population. Result was the transplantation of deities, that is, deities from East brought to Greek and vice versa. Secondly, identification and combination of various deities in origin took place. In this process, the cult of foreign gods was established in Greek speaking area with its Hellenized form. Thirdly, the mutual permeation of various elements of the different religions and cultures. In this process, oriental religions were Hellenized; concept of Greek religion invaded other religions and inherited concepts of local tradition reinterpreted in order to fit new world culture. Fourthly, creation of new religions out of Greek and non Greek elements of older religions. Here, syncretism developed as a religion in the process harmonizing two opposing historical forces namely, the constraints which reestablished by the tradition and new culture and its spirit. In the light of this development, Christianity adapted variety of cultural and religious currents and foreign elements to become a world religion.

(b)The Old Gods and Their Cults

          The old cults started to demise at the beginning of the Hellenism. The political power of the central sanctuary of the political league came to an end in East and West through superpower politics. This loss of function of old tradition led into religious and liturgical reformation of cults of old gods. This was frequent in Hellenistic era and also old cults flourished during this period which manifested through extensive building activities of temples, multiplication of games and festivals and reformation of Greek temples. In Roman period, Augustus gave imperial support for Greek cults. During this period, the old cults underwent innovations such as introduction of burning of incense; hymns, prayers, incense and lamp as daily rituals and sermons preached in special occasions.

(c)   The Oracles

        Though the political significance of the oracle diminished in Hellenistic era, the sibyls got increasing popularity. These oracles usually published as books under the name of famous Asian sibyls. In their Asian form, these oracles were produced by prophetic women through ecstatic predictions. Such books usually predict about the final turn in the history of world and human being. Jews and Christians appropriated form of prophecy in such books to propagate their own apocalypticism. Oracles became more popular in Roman period. In this period, the oracles of Apollo in Claros became more popular because Claros could respond properly to the need of time.

(d)   Asclepius

         The cult of Asclepius originated in Thessaly, where he was a local healing god. The expansion of this cult started in the early IV BCE. The cult was expanded during Hellenistic and Roman period through the methodological propaganda of its leading proponents like Epidaurus. The cult became popular because: firstly, Asclepiea continued the old tradition of local deities. Secondly, spectacular healing happened through them and finally the clinical health-spa services provided by several sanctuaries of Asclepiea. They concentrated individual human beings in medical treatment and in its ritual preparation. The moral standards understood as requirement for healing. Moreover, Asclepius had more human side of God.

(e)   The Greek Mysteries

        The cult of Demeter in Eleusis was the epitome of Hellenistic mystery cults and it influenced other mystery cults. It was a major contributor of development of mystery cult. The festivals and sanctuaries of Demeter were very popular in Greek. It had strong influence in Roman period and several Roman emperors were initiated to Eleusinian mysteries. In addition to cult of Eleusis, there were other mystery cults and the sanctuary of Cabiri Samothrac was most famous among them which enjoyed wide popularity in both Roman and Hellenistic period.

(f)    Dionysus

       The cult of Dionysus was another widely accepted mystery cult. Dionsus (called also Bakchos) was popular god in Greek period who considered as a god of fertility. Savagery and ecstasy were the features associated with the rituals of this cult. Dionysus cult had connection with Orphic ideas, that is, life after death. This cult was recognized widely in Hellenistic period even through ruling authorities. In this cult association, mysteries were performed in private homes and the celebrations included common meal and drinking of wine. Though this cult was popular among the upper class in Roman period, Senatus consultum gives evidences for severe measures that were taken by Roman authorities against this kind of mysteries.

4. The New Religions.

(a) Sarapis and Isis

             Several Egyptian gods such as Isis, Osiris, Apis, Seth and so on Hellenized during the Hellenistic period. Apis and Osiris (God of the shepherds of the Nile’s eastern delta and God of the dead) were closely associated that resulted the divine name Oserapis. Ptolemy I Hellenized the cult of Oserapis and brought into his new capital. Sarapis was the new Hellenized name of Oserapis. Ptolemies adapted Egyptian god as their own deity in order to keep the legitimacy as the true heirs of Pharaohs. Moreover, Isis a god who came to Hellenistic world along with Oserapis became universal deity. The aretalogies reveals that this cult had the influence of cosmological and astrological concepts and tendency towards monotheism and universality. Concerning with the process of initiation, Isis offers a concept of dying to ones formal life and possibility of new life in the service of goddess. This Hellenistic concept of rebirth might be appeared in Roman 6 where Paul talks about those who baptize have died with Christ and should walk in new life. The difference between the two is that one needed to pay high amount for initiation to cult of Isis but Christianity liberated initiation from financial requirement and democratized. Moreover, Sarapis sanctuaries had big halls to accommodate its followers and conduct its services. Sarpis might have had structures which clearly resemble the structure of Jewish synagogue of Christian church.

(b) The Magma Mater and Attis

           Cult of Sibyl, the Great Mother of life and fertility deity of the Phrygians became widespread during Hellenistic period. This cult was brought into west were it was accepted officially by Rome as early as 204 BCE. This mystery cult had great spring festival during March 15 to 27. The festivals were colorful, filled with music and dance, the rites of primitive, cruelty and so on. Their understanding of moral standard was high. Moreover, myth of Attis was used by Christian gnostics.

(c) Sabazius, Men and Others

          Sabazius was Phrygian (and Thracian) god from Asia Minor who is related to cult of Dionysus and his worship became widespread and accepted during Hellenistic period in Roman west. This cult had features of mystery cult. Further, Sabazius also had identification with Zeus, Hypsistos (“The highest god”), Great Mother and Mithras. It is assumed and argued that there might be Jewish-Syncretic mystery cult in Asia Minor on the basis of several documents from Asia Minor about the cult of the “God the Highest” and existence of people who observed Sabbath. Further it seems that Christianity also got influenced by such syncretistic Jewish cult. Further, Men were another Phrygian deity and whose cult was like mystery religion in Hellenistic period.

(e)   The problems of Mystery Religions

        Richard Retzenstein’s thesis of an oriental Iranian origin of the mystery religions contributed several understanding of this religions, though the hypothesis of mystery religions may have homogenous character and Persian origin are questionable.

        The Greek mysteries were attached to wide meanings and usages. Several old gods’ cults had mysteries which can be found in religious associations organized with the priest and presidents, fixed membership and regular meetings. Sometimes mysteries had a purpose to provide organization for public procession and festivals. It even was attached to emperor cult. The oriental religions considered mysteries as secret rituals. The mystery religions are Hellenized oriental cults in which the understanding of special secret rites as “mysteries” is a Greek component of their Hellenization.

       

        The features of mystery cults are: a firm organization in each congregation to which all members are subject, membership obtained through rites of initiation, participation in regular meetings in which sacramentals are celebrated according to fixed rites, obligations to observe certain moral and ascetic precepts, mutual support of all members, obedience to leader of the cult or community and cultivation of tradition which were subject to arcane discipline.

        Some of the features of mystery cult can be seen in early Christianity: Lords Supper which Christians celebrated as a mystery that guaranteed immorality for each participant, diversity of leadership and interpretation of tradition in the early church, fellowship meal understood as Messianic banquet and world wide organization of Christianity. Even Christianity with its many groups and sects, some parts of diaspora Judaism and rabbinic Judaism can be considered as mystery religions.

        Theologically, rites of mysteries can be understood as means to provide salvation or immorality. The idea and language used for this purpose was from Hellenistic history of religions in general which came into its flowering Roman imperial period. Judaism and Christianity shared this language. Christianity came under suspicion as a mystery religion when it employed such languages especially related with mysteries. Through this kind of process Christianity became one among the Hellenistic religions.

        The followers of mystery religions were included population of big cities, urban population, educated and literate people. Practice of wandering missionaries and philosophers with their active demonstration were widespread. They won individuals and inclusive community for religious purposes. In Christianity, gnostic concept of elect of few conflicted with Christian universalism.

        Hellenistic and Roman period can be called as age of mystery religion. The mystery religions were widespread with the help of contemporary milieu where these religions linked with the Hellenistic view of human beings and their world. The cosmos has its divine order but the humans are not allowed to participate fully in this divine order because they are caught up in realm of sense perception and matter, disorder and mortality and are subject of fate. Salvation can be achieved only through faith in invisible powers. Therefore the mastery of life depends on the help of otherworldly powers and the guarantees that extend to life beyond death. This idea of overcoming death and fate and participating in divine order got superiority over philosophical doctrines. The right of initiation has implication of guarantee for work of superior powers and opportunity to be accepted into community who possess the same secret. The ideas such as favour of other worldly power in the adversities of life and life after death can be found in Christianity. 

JUDAISM IN THE HELLENUSTIC PERIOD

1. The History of Israel to the Roman Conquest

(a)From the Exile to Alexander the Great

          Babylon conquered by Persians in 521BCE and thereafter Jews were permitted to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the city. The temple was rebuild from 520 to 515. Jerusalem was subject to the Persian satrap at Samaria but later the Persian king permitted Nehemiah to become the satrap of the province of Jerusalem.  Nehemiah completed the construction of the wall. Ezra came to the city 400 BCE and who introduced a new law which had authorized by the Persian state. This law was not identical with the Pentateuch. Jerusalem was also recognized as temple state. Moreover, Greek influence increased during this period.

(b)Palestine under the Hellenistic Rulers

          Palestine came under the rule of Alexander the Great after the battle at Issus in 333BCE. Samaria resisted Alexander’s general but they destroyed Samaria and the expelled Jews rebuild the city of Shechem and thus laid foundation of Samaritan schism. After Alexander’s death, Palestine came under the rule of Ptolimies of Egypt as part of southern Syria and later it fell into the rule of Seleucid kings in 198 BCE. In this war, Jerusalem supported Seleucid king Antiochus III and in turn Antiochus renewed all the privileges of Jerusalem and granted new favours. Moreover, Palestine was not fully subject to Ptolomies and large part of the county remained under princes, temple and wealthy Thobiads of Transjordan (Thobiads were a wealthy Hellenized Jewish family who had close association with high priestly families in Jerusalem through marriage and financial transactions). Seleucid rule did not make any basic change in this but the power shifted from Ptolemies party to Seleucid party in Jerusalem.Greek cities were established in east and west of the Palestine during the time of Alexander, Ptolemies and Seleucids. These hellenized cities brought Hellenized elements into these cities.

(c) The Maccabean Revolt

         Seleucid party in Jerusalem was led by high priest Simon and older sons of Tobiad Joseph. It is noticeable that the wealthy Hellenized Jews were behind when Antiochus guaranteed the ‘the laws of the fathers’. This circle of new religious group must have had opposition from traditional group who hold old form of religion and culture. This could be the one of the reason behind the revolt. Moreover, the political fighting in leading high priestly family, humiliation of the Syrian king Antiochus IV Epiphanes and widespread of apocalypticism were the other factors that prevailed over there before the revolt.

          Onias III, who belonged to the Sadokite family, was the successor of high priest Simon after his death. He supported the pro-Egiptian party and youngest son of the Tobiad Joseph and later he supported the older sons of Tobiad who had connction with pro-Seleucid Simon. The assassination of king Seleucus IV in 175 gave Tobiad and their Hellenistic party the opportunity to expel Onias and appoint his brother Jason as high priest. Jason purchased the office from Antiochus IV. Jason had permission from king to hellanize the Jewish state. After the expulsion of Jason, Menelaus became the high priest in 172 with the support of the reformers. Menelaus also paid money to the king for the office. This corruption of the office became the cause to develop an opposition from the pious Jews, Hasidim, which formed a new political movement.

         Returning after the campaign in Egypt in 163-168 BCE, Antiochus came to Jerusalem and took the temple finance. After the king left the city, the infuriating people, especially the traditional party, locked Menelaus and the partisans of the reform group. Humiliated Antiochus (by Romans in Egypt) captured Jerusalem and murdered or expelled the Jews and made Jerusalem as a katoikia that is a city in which soldiers, veterans and other colonists formed a citizenry. Hellenistic gods brought into the temple. In 167, Antiochus legitimized new Hellenistic cult and prohibited the Jewish religious practices. He persecuted the faithful Jews. Many Jews and Hellenized Jewish aristocracy in Jerusalem compromised with this new Hellenistic cult but other group of pious Jews flew to mountains of Judea and started guerilla war under Maccabees against Hellenism.

       Guerillas under Judas were successful in four years of war. Thus, the Hellenized Jews in Jerusalem persuaded Antiochus and thus Antiochus repealed his edicts against Jews. Judas conquered Jerusalem shortly after this. Antiochus was died in 163 and his deputy Lysias was not able to involve with Jerusalem because of succession problem in Antioch. Judas used this opportunity and he consolidated his power. He made agreement with the new king and Jerusalem came to the traditional Jewish cult. Menelaus was executed and Alcimus, a Zadokite became the high priest but Judas did not recognize him because of his affinity with Hellenism.

        Demetrius I, successor of Antiochus V turned against Judas and supported Alcimus against Judas. At last, Judas died in a battle in 160. Afterward, Syrian commander agreed to appoint Jonathan, Judas’ brother, as judge in town of Michmash with condition of his non interference in the affairs of Jerusalem. Thus, Syrians became the rulers but religious freedom granted. But Jonathan successfully used the internal difficulties of the Syrian empire to achieve the political independency. He supported Alexander  Balas in his attempt against King Demetrius I received office of high priesthood as reward and finally Balas appointed Jonathan as governor of the Judea.

(d)The Time of the Hasmoneans

       

       Jonathan supported Diodotus Trypho in his attempt against Demetrus II to gain the throne for the son of Alexander Balas and in turn Thypho confirmed Jonathan’s office and appointed his brother as strategos of the coastal district of Palestine. But Thrypho captured and executed. Simon, brother of Jonathan made a treaty with Demetrius II against Thypho where Demetrius II accepted Simon as an independent ruler. Simon conquered Jaffa and Gezer and established diplomatic tie with Rome and Sparta. Simon was confirmed as high priest by Jewish leaders.

         Simon did not take the title king but his authority was based on military power and he alone had right to be clothed in purple and wear a gold buckle. Priests and others who disobey Simon treated with severe punishment. Several Hasidim members namely Essence and Pharisees were not ready to accept Simon’s priesthood because he was not a Zadokite. Thus, Essense exiled into desert on the Shores of the Dead Sea.

         Simon’s sons Judas and John Hyrcanus successfully prevented the attempt of Antiochus VII Sidites, Seleucid king, to capture Gezer and Jaffa. Ptolemy, son in law of Simon killed Simon and his wife and two of his sons but Johan Hyrcanus escaped. Johan recognized as the successor of Simon. Meanwhile, Antiochus tried to capture Judea and John made a settlement with Antiochus. Later Antiochus killed in a battle against Parthans and that was the end of Syrian interference in Judea.

        Johan Hyrcanus conquered most of the Palestine in the following decades. Rest of the area conquered by Aristobulus and Alexander Janneus. The inhabitants of the conquered Greek cities forced to accept Judaism, or to emigrate or to subject of the Hasmonean rule. Though the process of hellenization came to an end during their rule, Hellenistic elements and influence were continuously existed there.

        Hasmoneans used religion as tool to make all inhabitants of Judea loyal to Jerusalem, where the ruler was high priest. The religious policies of Hasmoneans were not acceptable to many especially Pharisees and this led into an open conflict.  The civil war, instigated by Pharisees started in 94 BCE and continued for six years and it stopped by the intervention of Syrian king Demetrius III. Janneus had final victory and he crucified 800 leaders of the rebels. But Pharisees became a ruling party during the reign of Janneus’ widow Alexandra. After death of Alexandra, her sons Hyrcanus and Aristobulus started fighting each other and this internal struggle led them to approach Roman general Pompey and finally Pompey conquered Jerusalem.

(e)The Jewish Diaspora

        The Jewish Diaspora started with Babylonian exile. Though Jews permitted to return to Jerusalem, only a small part of the Jews used this opportunity. Thus, a large number of Jews left back in Babylon. Though Jews were livid many cities (of east such as Edessa, Nisibis, Adiabene and Dura Europus), Seleucia on the Tigris and Babylon were the cities that had large number of Jews in Hellenistic period. Hellenization also affected diaspora Jews. Jew in Babylon had strong connection with Jews in Palestine. Hillel school in Babylon had influence on Jews in Jerusalem. Rabbis of Jamnia accepted the Babylon text of Hebrew bible in their attempt to reorganize Judaism after 70CE, destruction of Jerusalem. Later Babylonian Talmud accepted as authoritative.

          There were large Jewish colonies in Egypt during the time of Persians. A group of Jews came to Egypt after the conquest of Jerusalem by Babylon. Many Jews settled down in Alexandria as early as III BCE. Alexandrian diaspora strengthened during Ptolemaic period. Jews even came to Egypt during the time of Seleucid. This indicates that Jews in Egypt enjoyed favour in most of the Hellenistic period. Moreover, the language of the Alexandrian diaspora was Greek. The Hebrew bible translated to Greek in Alexandria. Further, Jewish diaspora found in Agean islands such as Crete and Cyprus, Antioch, Apamea, Damascus and many parts of Syria.

         Diaspora in Asia Minor was noticeable. Antiochus III settled two thousand Jewish families in western Asia Minor. Jewish communities were existed in all districts of southern and western Asia Minor at the beginning of the Roman Period. Moreover, Jewish communities were existed in Thessalonica, Athens, Corinth and Argos. Jewish communities found in Italy and Sicily in the west. Rome became the centre of Jews in the imperial period. This is supported by the thirteen synagogues have been found in the city through excavation. 

         Jews in and outside the Palestine affected with Hellenization. Jews in Palestine spoke Aramic and kept Hebrew as liturgical language but Jews in diaspora spoke Greek except those who were in Babylon and used Greek language for liturgical functions and literature. Hebrew bible translated into Greek. Koester says “as Greek became the language of the bible, of liturgy, preaching, and literature, so did Hellenistic concepts and ideas invade Jewish thinking and bring fundamental changes in the tradition and reception of Israel’s literary inheritance. Theological statement became philosophy.” Bible started to interpret allegorically because it contains philosophical and religious insights and the symbols reinterpreted. Stoic formulations were used in the translated Jewish prayers. This Hellenization of the Old Testament was a starting point to Christian mission activities later. 

         The Jews in diaspora organized as Greek associations. These associations were consisted of resident aliens who had the permission to practice their religion and profession. Jews kept Greek and Roman laws in their legal and business contracts. Thus, diaspora Jews might be replaced the authority of temple and its theocracy with Greek democratic principles. Though Jews in diaspora gave their temple tax, Jerusalem temple did not find any authority over Jews in diaspora.

         The Jews could be practiced their religious practices when the authorities granted them certain privileges like Sabbath, the right to assemble and to send money to Jerusalem. But the Jews in diaspora had right of a full citizenship only in exceptional cases and they were never exempted officially from public practice of the state cult, though there was freedom to all to practice their religion. The authorities ignored usually when Jews failed to show themselves in such public practices of the state cult. Such non observance noticed only when there were anti-Jewish moves among the city inhabitants.

         Jews in diaspora faced persecutions and problems from anti-Semitic actions. The anti-Judaism originated in the time of diaspora because of the coexistence of the different cultural and religious traditions and the competitions existed among such traditions. The anti-Jewish polemic accused Jews for their strange rites such as circumcision, Sabbath, the Jewish refusal to worship and worship without idols. Another two factors that contributed to anti-Jewish move are: Jews insisted for their special rights and Hasmoneans forcefully converted many into Judaism. Religious pluralism was one of the foundations of the Hellenism. Jews wanted to take advantage of this pluralism without practicing the entire life of the city. Thus, the situation of the Jews in diaspora was precarious.

2. The History of the Jewish Religion

(a)Temple, Law and Priests (Sadducees)

           Pentateuch was completed long before the Hellenism. The re-established Jerusalem temple was the centre of the religion. Though the highest political authority was Persians, the Jerusalem temple state had highest authority no other than temple and priests. The guardians of the temple and its cult and the interpreters of the law were the priests. Priests were the wealthiest aristocrats in the land. It is concluded that the wealthiest priestly families were opened to the Hellenistic elements. One of the reasons for the Meccabean revolt was the hellenization of the priests particularly family of the Oniads. After the revolt, Hasmoneans supported by priests who had different theological orientation: stand against hellenization. The priests during the time of Hasmoneans were known as Sadducees. The name Sadducees may be identical with Zadokites, revealing connection to Zadok.  They wanted to guarantee the exact fulfillment of the temple and cult legislation which was codified in the written law. They emphasized the literal interpretation of the law and they did not consider the Prophets and Hagiographa (Writings) as authoritative. They did not believe in resurrection, existence of angels and spirits. Sadducees were entrusted to preserve the temple, cult, law and they were against assimilation of the any form of Hellenist element, though one may be found many Hellenistic elements in their life style. They maintained the traditional integrity of the temple and this enabled them to maintain a leading position in the religious policies until the fall of Jerusalem.

(b)Apocalypticism

         Apocalyptic movement was the most important theological movement in Hellenistic time which mediated the essential inheritance of the Israel and its prophetic tradition to Christianity. Apocalyptic thought was originated during the period of exile where Deuteronomistic history interpreted God in the light of new historical experiences and the Book of Job perceived God’s revelation outside of the history and politics. Prophetical traditions such as Deutro-Isaiah, Ezekiel, Zechariah and Trito-Isaiah presented a view of future with mythological allusions that contributed for development of apocalypticism. Assimilation of the myths and Hellenization of Jewish thought contributed for the development of apocalypticism.

         Koester noticed following the most important features of the apocalypticism in Hellenistic period: (a) The concept of chaos and creation are increasingly dominated by elements stemming from oriental mythology. (b) In relation with this view, the future is expected to bring a new creation of cosmological dimensions through an eschatological catastrophic revolution in heaven and earth. This is similar to the astrological concept of eschatological catastrophe in later Hellenism and Roman period. (c) The dualistic view of cosmos and humans was existed. (d) The myth - coming of son of God to the daughters of earth - in Gen 6: 1ff became a symbol of ruling of evil powers in the present time. (e) The humans were understood as fundamentally defective in comparison with God. (f) The idea of prophetic mission is democratized. This means the task and the promise attached with prophetic office transferred to Israel who is considered as the elect people. (g) The nation and the elect are no longer identical. The prophetic mission can be achieved through the members of the nations who keep the commandment of God while the disobedient Israel will be punished. (h) Faith in resurrection or immorality along with the concept of hell and eternal punishment widespread. (i) The theology of history is replaced by “wisdom”. Thus, philosophy and gnosis are emphasized in apocalyptic thought and both of these appeared in Judaism at the beginning of the Roman period.

         The apocalyptic ideas appeared in prophetical traditions such as Deutro-Isaiah, Ezekiel, Zechariah and Trito-Isaiah. Therefore, the bearers of the apocalyptic literature were the circle who associated with this prophetical tradition. Though it is not understood much about such group, it is assumed that Hasidim cultivated the apocalyptic concept among them. Later these apocalyptic ides survived in the sectarian movements: Essenes, Pharisees and Christianity.

(c)The Essenes

         Philo, Josephus, Hippolytus, Pliny and Dio Chrysostom mentioned about the Essenes in their writings. Discovery of Dead Sea manuscript and excavations in Kirbet Qumram shed more light upon the understanding about Essenes.

         The Essenes developed out of the circle of Hasidim who were behind Meccabean revolt. It is assumed that the priestly group of Hasidim went into exile and formed a sect. Later they broke their association with Maccabean rulers because of their difference in appointing non-Zadokite priests in the temple with Maccabean support. This apparently happened when Hasmonean Simon and his descendants became the priests. The mention about “Wicked Priest” in Qumran texts could be understood as referring to Simon who accused by Essenes as one who persecuted the Teacher of Righteousness.

         The building has been excavated at the northwest of the Dead Sea. It was erected by Essenes as a place of exile. The first building period of the Essenes might be soon after middle II BCE. The building was existed for more than two hundred years and damaged by an earthquake in 31 BCE and finally destroyed by Romans during the Jewish war in 68 CE.

         The Essenic community of Qumran understood themselves as the true people of the elect, people of the renewed covenant of the last days who distained to play a decisive role on the battle of the end time. They had to live in constant preparedness for the war of sons of God against the sons of darkness. The Old Testament concepts of the ritual purity influence the ritual life of the community. The community established in order to live according to the eschatological concept which even detected all the aspect of the community life. Their common meals, community of goods and personal poverty of its members indicate their messianic expectations. The preservation of the cultic purity of the community which includes the observation of the all ritual commands in the law was the central concern. The authority for this was interpretation of the law, for which the community was appealed to the Teacher of Righteousness. In their hermeneutics, they related each passage to a particular event in the recent past, present or future.

         The theological concept of the Dead Sea writing is apocalyptic in nature. They continued the apocalyptic thought of postexilic and Hasidim. Their theological schemata are dualistic. One can find a dualism of powers which rule the earthly as well as the heavenly realm. Light and darkness, God and Belial, the spirit of truth and the spirit of wickedness, confront each other on the earth and heaven.  This dualistic thought strongly connected with strict determinism. The generations of the sons of light and the sons of darkness have been predetermined by God.

         They expect several messianic figures such as the messianic priest from the house of Aaron, the eschatological prophet, and the messianic king from the house David. Moreover their writings reveal they had understanding about an entire host of divine and evil spirit and angels. They are at work in heavenly and earthly realm and their action is analogous to the eschatological events taking place to humans. The angels are divided into two groups: angel of light and angels of darkness. The angels of light led by the “price of light” or the “spirit of truth.” The angel of the darkness called as Belial who is the enemy of God and the tempter of humans. His angels are called the “spirit of wickedness” or the “spirit of error.” Moreover, the angels are appeared in their concept of individual piety where they are helping or seductive powers or inclination in human heart. This means they also emphasized the problem of individual piety.

(d)Pharisees

         The New Testament, writings of Josephus and Mishnah are the sources for the information about Pharisees. Josephus says they were predecessors of reorganization of Judaism after the Jewish war and a religious movement that had support of the people. Like Essenes, they also had their origin from the Hasidim. After the Meccabean revolt, they accepted the new political situation and involved in the politics. Though there is lack of information about the relationship between the Hasmoneans and Pharisees, it is conclude that they were well organized political movement. This indicates by the role that they played in the state policy making during the reign of Janneus’ widow Alexandra. Moreover, they had political alliance with Herod for some time. The later break with Herod apparently indicates termination of Pharisaic movement in their role as a religio- political group of wielding political power.

       It is assumed that the Pharisees appeared as a group with sole purpose of realization of purely religious goals at the time of Jesus and early Christianity. It is apparently happened because of influence of Hillel school.  They had inheritance of messianic concept of Hasidim, though their messianic concept, unlike, had no dimension of the political realization. Further, their messianic expectation in Jesus’ time and later Judaism closely linked with the fulfillment of the law. The tradition of interpretation which handed over from teacher to student became the central religious institution of Pharisaic Judaism. Their concept of teaching, teacher and student were similar to Hellenistic schools which produced philosophy. Their interpretation method is known as Halacha –discussion of the argument and counter argument of each commandment under the condition of a new time. This method is presupposed that everything that was written in the past is relevant to new time. This concept is similar to Stoic concept of interpretation.

        Individualism is another concept of Pharisaic Judaism. The separation from the immediate association with cult setting enabled individuals to practice the law even in a non-Jewish context and accordingly the individuals get one’s own share in God’s righteousness.  The concept of punishment and reward as well as judgment and punishment are applied individually like Hellenistic concept of immorality and judgment of the dead.

       They had fellowship meal but no liturgy and rites of initiation. They were informally bound association with common interest and the only institutional tie was the school house.

(e)Wisdom Theology

        The predecessor of the wisdom theology was the experiential wisdom of Israel which grew out of the different walk of the life of people in generations. Traditionally some divine or human figures considered as originators and transmitters of such tradition. With this association, wisdom theology claimed divine revelation. The institutionalization of wisdom might have happened in the time of Solomon. The codification of the wisdom was done in order to give practical insight to different aspect of the life.

The situation in Babylonian exile demanded new answers from wisdom in the context of deterioration of the prophet’s role in interpreting the history. In such context the task was to make the world intelligible, to make it possible to discern its order and to defend it against the power of chaos.  Moreover, the beginning of the wisdom theology closely linked with the rise of apocalypticism. Wisdom theology directs its message to the experience of the individual-the ideal of the religious human being is the wise man or philosopher.

       The personified wisdom became herself the plan of the creation and finally, as a mythical figure, mediator of creation. This is very similar to the concept of association of Egyptian-Hellenistic Isis with wisdom.  Considering human is created in the image of God, Wisdom addresses the ultimate destiny of the humans as divine as their origin. Knowing their divine origin, the wise recognize the true meaning of the life which leads them to final justification and vindication. The skeptical wisdom of Judaism resisted this message of wisdom theology and emphasized the absurdity of the course of the world and the transitoriness of human existence. For them, it is impossible to relate the idea of God to the individual’s experience of life.  God can be understood only as the general power of the course of the world and of the general fate of all human creatures. To response to skepticism, wisdom theology understood the fulfillment of the law as the way to the fulfillment of the divine destiny of the humans.

Wisdom has an important role in apocalyptic theology. Wisdom comes through revelation and so it cannot be taught. Wisdom is mythical. The wise man is possessor of the secrets and so he can instruct about past, present and future. This phenomenon of wise man is pseudepigraphy and such writings appeared under the name of the ancient wise man.

(f)The Samaritan

           Samaria conquered by the Assyrians in721BCE. Jerusalem was under the Samaria after their return from Babylon until Nehemiah. The most of the inhabitants of Samaria were Israelites who fully accepted the reformation of the Nehemiah as is shown by the Samaritan Pentateuch. Alexander’s general conquered the Samaria and expelled the people and established a military colony there. The population fled to Shechem and built a city. They also constructed a temple on Mt. Gerizim, near Schechem. During the Hasmonean period, John Hyrcanus destroyed this temple and tried a religious unification. The separate development of the Samaritan religious literature began in this period. Because of the close similarity with Palestinian form of the Pentateuch, the Samaritan tradition can be dated before the end of II BCE. This can be confirmed by the Samaritan script and their apocalypticism which is closely relate to the Maccabean phase of Jewish aplocalyptic thought. During the time of Jesus and early Christianity, the most influential circle of Jerusalem rejected Samaritans. But the concept of Samaritans as a syncretic group can not be justified because of lack of evidence. The min cause of rejection of Samaritans may be the separate development of the Samaritan cultic community. 

3. The Literature of Judaism in the Hellenistic Period

(a)The Language of Judaism in Hellenistic Period

       The Hebrew was continued as religious language after the exile. Many books that were written in this period in Hebrew came to light through the discoveries of Dead Sea scroll.  Aramaic was the colloquial and business language in Syria and Mesopotamia and which was spoken in Palestine. It was developed as an administrative language in Assyrian empire. But after the conquest of Persian Empire by Alexander, Aramaic continued as a second administrative   language after Greek and used as business and colloquial language even during Roman Empire. Aramaic was used for Jewish writings. Moreover, during Hellenistic period Greek became more influential language but Aramaic survived. Greek became prominent because of Greek colonization and significance of Greek as a cultural language. In Palestine and Diaspora, many Hebrew and Aramaic writings were translated into Greek which shared by many diaspora communities and this process contributed for the later development of Christianity.

(b)The Septuagint

      The term Septuagint (LXX) designates the Greek translation of the Old Testament. Pentateuch translated in III BCE and other books were translated in I BCE. Later, books like 3 and 4 Maccabees added which were unacceptable to Hebrew canon fixed by Rabbinic Judaism around 100CE.  Martin Luther named such books which are not included in Hebrew canon but included in LXX as Apocrypha-books which are not equal to Holy Scriptures but useful for reading.

     

     The translation of the Hebrew bible was made for the use of synagogue worship. It became basis for new departure of the Jewish theology. The LXX became the most significant factor in the process of Hellenization of the Judaism. And it also became a source of the theological language of Judaism and early Christianity. The influence of the LXX extended to the written versions of the Old Testament history, apologetic and allegorical commentaries and non biblical writings.There are several recensions of the LXX which show the relationship between Hebrew text and Greek text. The oldest recensions may be proto-Lucianic recension which is closer to Palestinian Hebrew text. The proto-Theodionic recension used by Josephus and Origen follows Babylonian Hebrew text. Further development of these recensions was developed in the translations of Theodoiton, Aquila and Symmachus. Moreover, the climax of these editions of Greek Bible text is the Hexapla of Oreign where he puts together the various versions of Old Testament with Alexandrian text-critical methods. Meanwhile Lucian, the founder of Antiochan School, published a new text of LXX which became the official text of the Old Testament in the byzantine church. 

(c)The Literature of the Apocalyptic Movement

        1. Daniel: It is the oldest and the most influential apocalypse of Hellenistic period which was partially written in Hebrew and Aramaic after the desecration of the Jewish temple (167 BCE) by Antiochus IV and before his death (164 BCE). It is not written by Daniel who was in Babylonian Kings’ court. It may be preserved older materials as part of style of apocalyptic literature, that is, the apocalypse replaces historical introduction with prophetical presentation of past history and the place of announcement of curses and blessing is occupied by a visionary prediction of future event. Daniel assimilated mythological materials of Babylonian and Canaanite origin. This material was applied to present situation: the Son of Man, symbol of Israel as an expected ruler over the nations. This image presents in eschatology of Hasidic movement. Daniel is most influential in Jewish and Christian apocalyptic literature.

        2. 1 Enoch: It is another influential apocalyptic writing in Hellenistic period after Daniel. Ethiopic translation made in I or II CE. A number of fragments of 1 Enoch found in Qumran. The older part of 1 Enoch which compiled with “Apocalypse of Weeks” and “Apocalypse of Animals”, which parallels a Daniel Apocryphon found in Cave IV of Qumran. 1 Enoch 1:9 quoted in Jude 14f. 1 Enoch contains repeated interpretation of Genesis 6:1-4.

       3. The Ascension of Moses: It is preserved only in Latin translation of Greek version which depends on its Hebrew or Aramaic origin. The book can be dated in I CE but the tradition behind it may be much older (from 2 BCE). This book contains the last words of Moses before his ascension. It emphasizes the role of Levi and very polemic against Hasmoneans, Herodians and Pharisees.

       4. The War Scroll: It was composed I CE. It talks about the holy war of sons of light against the sons of darkness.

       5. Sibylline Oracles: This name is derived from Greek sibyls- recorded oracles of inspired prophetical women. The oriental sibylline books produced in competition with officially recognized Greek Sibyls. Among these competitors, a Jewish Sibyl produced writings in Greek during II BCE and it was later revised by Christians and finally grew into a total 14 books. It contains apologetic motifs, propaganda for monotheism and apocalyptic predictions. History of world is seen in the perspective of divine plan.

        6. Testaments of the 12 patriarchs: This book is preserved in Greek translation of Hebrew (and Aramaic) originals from the pre-Christian period. Its content includes each of the sons of Jacob gives admonitions to his children and eschatological concept such as the expectation of the royal messiah from Judah who is subordinated to priestly messiah from Levi.

        7. Manual of discipline and Damascus document:  The organization of apocalyptic sect as a people of covenant produced several Essenic documents which contain covenant formula. Manual of discipline and Damascus document are such kind of writing. Manual of writing from Qumran written in Hebrew contains the basic legislation for the community of new covenant, liturgical instructions for the admission of new members, regulations for festival of covenant renewal, regulation of the community, instruction about two spirits and order of discipline. The ruler of congregation, another document, recorded on the backside of Manual of discipline contains instructions for the convocation of Israel for messianic banquet. Damascus document discovered in 1896 and published in 1910. Later the same document was discovered from Qumran enabled to determine the origin of this book. It might be written for “People of New Covenant in the Land of Damascus”. It emphasizes that the only the Zadokites faithfully adhered to the covenant of God.

       8. Peshers: Essence produced commentaries of Bible which is known as Peshers. Among this Pesher on Habakkuk and Nahum are notable. The interpretation connects biblical passages to recent past or present events, it is notable the names of Demetrius III and Antiochus are mentioned in Pesher. Moreover, the library of Qumran preserved a Florilegium which is exegesis of biblical passages. The hypothesis that Christians used florilegia of scriptural passages is based on the Qumran book called Testimonia.

       9. Hymns (Hodayot): It is a collection of number of thanksgiving hymns and each hymn introduced by a formula “I praise you Lord”. It has illusions to the psalms of Old Testament and use of traditional phrases. The hymns express personal and religious experiences.

       10. Psalms of Solomon: It is a collection of hymns in Greek but it might be composed in Hebrew, probably in Palestine during 60-30 BCE. It reflects pietism with self confidence of righteous person and sharp criticism of sinners. Messianic and apocalyptic views are expressed in it.

(d) The History of Israel as Reflected in the Jewish Literature of the Hellenistic Period:

        1. Book of Jubilee: It is partially preserved in Latin and complete version in Ethiopic translation. Both may be derived from Greek version of Hebrew origin. It is reproduction of Genesis 1 to Exodus 12 in a style of midrash, cast in the form of revelation by “Angel of the presence”. The origin of this book may be ascribed to Essence because of large number of fragments of this book found in Qumran and the use of solar calendar.

        2. Genesis Apocryphon: It was found in Qumran and it might be written between 50 BCE and 50 CE. It is an apologetic and edifying expansion of first book of Bible. Similar interests can be found in Pseudo-Philo’s Biblical Antiquities which is preserved in Latin and might be derived from Greek version of the Hebrew original. It contains biblical history from Adam to Saul. Beliefs such as resurrection, angelology and election of Israel are contained in this book.

       3. Fragments of Alexander Polyhistor: His works preserves extracts from Greco-Jewish authors who wrote about the figures of the book of Genesis and the history of Israel. Though his works are lost, quotations are cited in the writings of Josephus, Clement of Alexandria and Eusebius.

        4. Joseph and Asenath: It is unique employment of the stories of patriarch which probably was written during I BCE in Egypt. It is best called an allegorical romance. It alludes true community of God who kept bread, cup and ointment as symbol of sacraments of the true community.

       5. Hecateus: Hecateus wrote things about the recent past in the early Hellenistic period. His work was not preserved but Josephus quoted him.

       6. 1 and 2 Maccabees: Jason of Cyrene wrote history of Maccabean revolt. Though it lost, the extracts can be found in 2 Maccabees, an epitome of his work among the five books which he wrote. He used reliable sources. 2 Maccabees was probably written in 100 BCE or little later which treats the years 175-161 BCE and a report about the events during Seleucus IV (187-175 BCE) as a backdrop for the revolt. 1 Maccabees deals with the same subject of 2 Maccabees but covered longer period, from 175-134 BCE. These are valuable historical sources

       7. Esther: It is part of Hebrew canon composed with legends and fairy tale motifs. The LXX translation added further legendary features. The purpose of this book is to promote festival called Purim.

      8. Judith: It is preserved in the Greek form of the original Hebrew in LXX. It tells the story of salvation of people of God through the deed of a beautiful woman without having any particular historical basis. The purpose of this book is to emphasize the faithfulness to law.

      9. Other Hellenistic Jewish Legends: 3 Ezra is new form of combination of the books of Ezra and Nehemiah with fairy tale motif which is written after Judith and Esther. The book is dominated with the purpose of edification. 3 Maccabees talks about the story of miraculous salvation of Jews in Egypt from the persecution by Ptolemy IV and the story is in the form of pure fiction or legendary narrative. It might be written in ca. 40 CE or at the end of I BCE.

      10. Tobit:  It was composed ca.200 BCE and transmitted in Greek in the LXX, but one Hebrew and three Aramaic fragments of this book was found in Qumran. The literary genre of this book may be defined as the Hellenistic romance or the Oriental-Jewish wisdom novel or the fairy tale as all the three elements are equally present.

(e) From Wisdom to Philosophical Apologetics

          

        1. The Wisdom of Jesus, the Son of Sirach: This book was translated into greek in 130 BCE by the grandson of the author and the Hebrew version of this book was found in Cairo Geniza, Qumran and Masada. It was written probably during the first decade of II BCE. It is a collection of wisdom, traditions, five groups of sayings, didactic poems, and wisdom hymns, psalms of thanksgiving and laments and pieces which were composed by the author. Author might by one of the member of educated aristocracy of Jerusalem with a conservative position.

           2. Qoheleth:  It is included in Hebrew canon compiled shortly before the time of Sirach. It is a product of much more critical impact of Hellenism upon Jewish wisdom. But later editor included Orthodox interpolations which softened the skeptical attitude of the book. The original author expresses radical doubt bout justice in the natural order, emphasizing the inevitability of human predicament of death.

          3. 1 Baruch: It is probably composed towards the end of Hasmonean period and preserved in Greek. It contains prayers, psalms and wisdom speech in poetic form.

          4. Epistle of Aristeas and Pseudo-Phocylides: The Epistle of Aristeas was an attempt to support authority of the biblical law in its Greek version and it is influenced by the language of LXX. The historical inconsistencies in this book show that it was not written during the time of Ptolemy II Philadelphus as it claims, but at least a century earlier. This work addresses the gentiles. This work blended Jewish wisdom with Greek proverbs, generalities and philosophical ethics. The Pseudo-Phocylides was written in II or I BCE by a Jewish poet who used pseudonym of the Greek poet for Phocylides of Miletus. It offers Jewish wisdom sayings, moral teachings from Greek gnomic poetry and popular philosophy.

          5. 4 Maccabees: It was written by a Jewish philosopher by the half of I CE contains a diatribe about power of human reason. The reason is identical with the obedience of law which is understood as a confirmation of virtues namely righteousness, prudence, mercy and fortitude. In this writing, Jewish wisdom is dissolved into Greek popular philosophy.

          6. Wisdom of Solomon: This writing is from I BCE which is included in LXX.  This is appeared as less Hellenized in comparison with other Jewish wisdom literature. Its content includes theological wisdom of Israel, interpretation of history of Israel, discussion of pagan idol worship with apologetic aspects and royal speeches-an invitation to wisdom. This book radicalized the concept of wisdom theologically. The Wisdom of Solomon does not limit the possibility of wisdom only for pious Israelites but presents it as a fundamental human path.

(f)    Philo of Alexandria

          He was born in a Hellenized Jewish family of Alexandria about ca.20 BCE. He was educated in normal patterns of Greek schoolings, Greek philosophy and history. He had good command over Greek and was able to quote from Greek poets without effort. Though information about his Jewish education is not available, one can assume his association with the synagogue and knowledge of Hellenistic-Jewish scriptural interpretation and apologetics. He had Roman citizenship and occupied a leading position in Alexandria among Jews.

           His writings can be divided into apologies which deal historical events that demanded literary defense of the Jewish position and writings which demonstrate his close association with the Jewish religious life in Alexandria. His apologetic commentaries on the Bible, a kind of propagandistic literature, which follows Old Testament formula of covenant deals with the interpretation of law for educated gentile (or even Jewish) readers. The first book of apologetic commentary deals complex philosophical interpretation of Genesis 1 to 2. It used Plato’s Timaeus and also Pythagorean speculations with number. Here he mentioned about logos. The next book deals with Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Joseph. Another biographical work from him is about Moses.

          The Decalouge deals with law. He divided Ten Commandments as first five concerning the duties needed to do with God and the other five are duties needed to do with human beings. This division he used as a basic principle of interpretation of the law. His another work De virtutipus deals four virtues such as fortitude, kind heartness, conversion and nobility of thought.

  

         He also produced allegorical commentary of Genesis. It begins from Genesis second chapter and ends with the last chapter and in this commentary he raised philosophical, ethical, political, scientific, theological questions often with biblical references. The commentary begins with three books. The first book deals with Genesis 2:1-7, second book contains allegorical interpretation of serpent and nakedness and the third book contains Genesis 3:8-19. The books of allegorical commentary follow individual titles. De Cherubim explains the flaming sword and Adam as pure reason, Eve as a sense of perception, Cain as the evil intend which is born by the two. De Sacrificiis Abelis et Caini offers longest catalogue of vices ever written and it deals at length with the sacrifice of the first fruit. Another title (Gen 4:2-4) understands Cain and Abel as opposite principles as self love and love. De Posteritate Caini offers symbolic interpretation of names of the offsprings of Cain. De Gigantbus (Gen 6:1-4a) discusses about angels, demons and human soul with respect to Gen 6:2. Quod Deus Immutabilis sit (Gen 6:4b-12) explains Stoic distinction of all things in nature. De Agricultura and De Planta Tione deals Gen 9:20. De Ebrietate and De Sobrietate deals with Noah. De Confusione linguarum deals with contraversies of literal and mythological interpretations of Gen 11:1-9. De migratione Abrahami is exegesis of Gen 12:1-4 and 6. Quis rerum divinarum heres is allegorical commentary of Gen 15:2-18. De congressuquaerendae eruditionisgratia deals with Gen 16:1-6a. Gen 16:6b-9 and 11-12 deals in De fuga etinventione. De mutatione nominum uses the story of changing names to explain the need of allegorical interpretation. De somniis is the concluding books of allegorical commentary. Philo also wrote philosophical books.

         Through this literary activity Philo transformed Pentateuch into a Hellenistic book. He translated the mythical meaning of this book into Greek philosophical language by using allegorical and apologetic interpretation. He translated legal and moral materials of Jews into Greek categories. He merged the concept of the figure of heavenly wisdom with philosophic and religious idea of Logos. Philo connected negative world view of Jewish wisdom with philosophical cosmology of middle Platonism which resulted in subordination of earthly to heavenly world, visible to invisible, matter to reason and body to soul.

         Christianity has no direct connection with the thought of Philo but his ideas started to appear in Christian thought from second generation of Christian onwards. Alexander and theologians, Clement and Origen used Philo’s allegorical method of interpretation and Hellenistic Jewish religious philosophy and thus, his writings became a significant factor in Christian thought.  

This is prepared from the book:  

Koester, Helmut. History, Culture, and Religion of the Hellenistic Age. Philadelphia: Fortress                          Press, 1980.